INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIII, Issue XII, December 2024
www.ijltemas.in Page 179
Utilization of Palm Kernel Shell as Coarse Aggregate Replacement
in Pervious Concrete: An Alternative Approach to
Sustainable Pervious Concrete Walkway
ADEGBESAN Ololade Oluwatosin, AYEGBUSI Olufunke Adewunmi, Soyemi Olugbenga Babajide
Department of Civil Engineering, Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro Ogun State
DOI : https://doi.org/10.51583/IJLTEMAS.2024.131214
Received: 19 December 2024; Accepted: 26 December 2024; Published: 09 January 2024
Abstract: Increased urbanization in many cities of the world brings with it the problem of multiplied impervious surfaces on
infrastructure like roads. Using pervious instead of impervious surfaces will address these concerns, the use of palm kernel shell
(PKS) to replace granite in the matrix will further address the cost and environmental worries. A Pervious Concrete walkway was
constructed on an unpaved, waterlogged stretch using agricultural waste product-Palm Kernel Shell (PKS) to replace
conventional granite in the concrete matrix. The initial laboratory tests were carried out in accordance with BS 812, Part 101 from
1984 to 1990, and Parts 110 and 112 from 1990. The batching process was weighted, with aggregate percentages for partial
replacement set at 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50% PKS. The mix of 70% granite and 30% palm kernel shell produced the highest
compressive strength, with values of 5.33 MPa, 6.19 MPa, and 7.36 MPa at 7, 14, and 28 days, respectively. The incorporation of
PKS into the pervious concrete walkway effectively reduced waterlogging in the area while posing no environmental concerns..
Keywords: Agricultural Waste, Palm Kernel shell, Pervious Concrete, Walkway
I. Introduction
The rise in the construction of impervious navigable routes has led to increase in the surface runoff during rainfall due to these
impervious surfaces inhibiting infiltration of water into the subsoil layers, thereby increasing the surface runoff during rainfall
and now resulting in flooding, drainage overflow, and pollutant discharge into water bodies (ACI-522R, 2010, Bright Singh &
Murugan, 2022). The surface runoff dissolves impurities and other materials on the impervious surface while flowing to discharge
at drainage basins. This unfiltered water is released to water bodies without any form of treatment. The construction of more
impervious surfaces does not only increase the volume of surface runoff, but it also causes a reduction in the groundwater as the
water taken out of the ground is not replenished by infiltration (Yu et al., 2019; Debnath & Sarkar 2020).
The sustainable development goals (SDGs) 3, 6, 11, and 14 seeks to resolve the impact of flooding and the overflow of water
bodies, pollution caused as a result of surface run-offs from roads and the unregulated discharge of pollutants into water bodies
The growing emphasis on sustainable construction practices has led to significant innovations in material usage within the
construction industry. Among these innovations is pervious concrete, a specialized form of concrete designed to facilitate water
drainage and reduce surface runoff. As urbanization increases, the need for effective storm water management solutions has
become critical, making pervious concrete an attractive option
Pervious concrete by definition is a composite construction material which is predominantly made up of coarse aggregates,
binder, usually cement and water with little or no fine aggregates (ACI-522R, 2010). It is also called porous concrete, permeable
concrete, no-fines concrete or gap-graded concrete (Tarangini et al.,2022). Typical pervious concrete is made up of open-graded
coarse aggregate, Portland cement, (or any other cementitious material as a substitute or supplement), water, and admixtures
(AlShareedah & Nassiri, 2021; Kováč & Sičáková, 2018, Taheri et al.,2021).
Pervious concrete is characterized by its high porosity, consisting primarily of coarse aggregates, cement, and water, with
minimal fine aggregates. This unique composition allows water to permeate through the concrete matrix, thereby reducing runoff
and promoting groundwater recharge. The benefits of pervious concrete include mitigating flooding, improving water quality, and
contributing to urban heat island mitigation. However, its mechanical properties, particularly compressive and flexural strength,
can be lower than those of traditional concrete, which raises concerns about its structural applications
The growing demand for aggregate in the construction of engineering structures has resulted in higher costs and longer project
timelines. To address this, engineering-compliant palm kernel shells can be used as a substitute for coarse aggregate in pervious
concrete, effectively reducing reliance on traditional materials.
The incorporation of agricultural byproducts, particularly palm kernel shell (PKS), into pervious concrete offers a promising
approach to enhance both sustainability and material performance. Palm kernel shell is an agricultural waste product derived from
the processing of palm oil. It is lightweight, with a density significantly lower than that of conventional aggregates, and has a
porous, fibrous structure. These properties make PKS an attractive candidate for use as an aggregate in concrete applications. The
organic composition of PKS, primarily consisting of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, can contribute to its bonding
characteristics within the concrete matrix. In addition to being lightweight, palm kernel shell (PKS) boosts the sustainability of
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIII, Issue XII, December 2024
www.ijltemas.in Page 180
concrete by repurposing a waste material that would otherwise lead to environmental pollution. Its high porosity enables it to hold
moisture, which can assist in the cement hydration process during curing. These features make PKS especially well-suited for use
in pervious concrete, where effective drainage and mechanical performance are essential.
environmental pollution
This approach reduces the demand for coarse aggregate (granite) and promotes the recycling of agricultural waste. Uncontrolled
accumulated water during rainy seasons can lead to floods, erosion, and runoff, causing damage to lives, properties, and
disrupting human activities. Hence, consideration for pervious concrete using palm kernel shell, an agricultural waste instead of
granite as replacement for granite in the concrete matrix due to the cost and environmental impact of the coarse aggregate
(granite). The one constructed with conventional granite is not cost effective and not environment friendly
II. Review of Literature
Numerous researchers (Sandanayake et al., 2020; Adewuyi and Adegoke, 2008; Ogunfayo et al., 2015; Adeala and Soyemi, 2021)
have advanced the study of using local and waste materials in concrete production, highlighting its practical benefits for waste
reuse and sustainability. Ayegbusi and Soyemi (2023) examined the mechanical properties of impervious concrete utilizing palm
kernel shell (PKS) as a substitute for coarse aggregate. Their study focused on the impact of aggregate on the engineering
properties of pervious concrete with a mix ratio of 1:5 and a water-cement (W/C) ratio of 0.35. Shetty (2006) and Ravindrarajah
and Yukari (2008) explored the use of pervious concrete, an eco-friendly material for sustainable construction, incorporating
varying amounts of low-calcium fly ash as a cement substitute. Characteristics such as porosity, unit weight, compressive
strength, weight loss during drying, shrinkage, and water loss have been examined in studies of pervious concrete. Kukami et al.
(2013) found that aggregate constitutes 66% to 78% of the concrete. Research has demonstrated that recycling non-biodegradable
materials can create robust concrete for non-structural building components (Ghernouti et al., 2009; Chen et al., 2015; Amalu et
al., 2016; Sreenath & Harish-Shankar, 2017; Soyemi et al., 2023). Additionally, this approach offers the benefit of producing
lightweight materials. The incorporation of palm kernel shell as an aggregate in pervious concrete can lead to significant cost
saving and according to Elinwa & Okhide (2020), utilizing PKS can reduce the overall material costs in concrete production,
especially in regions where palm oil production is prevalent and the environmental advantages of using palm kernel shell in
pervious concrete are multifaceted. Zhang et al., (2017) demonstrated that pervious concrete with PKS enhances water infiltration
and drainage, which is crucial for managing storm water runoff. This capability reduces the risk of urban flooding and contributes
to groundwater recharge, thus supporting local ecosystems. Yeih et al. (2015) studied the engineering properties of pervious
concrete made with air-cooled electric arc furnace slag. Their experiments indicated that porous concrete using sand aggregates
exhibited greater mechanical strength and water permeability compared to concrete made from natural river gravels. Additionally,
the soundness tests showed that aggregates from sand lost less weight than those from river gravel. The results indicated that
sand-based pervious concrete outperformed gravel-based in terms of water permeability and compressive strength, achieving a
permeability of 0.01 cm/s and a strength exceeding 21 MPa. Yang and Jiang (2003) evaluated pavement material characteristics
and introduced porous materials for road use. They found that incorporating superplasticizers, silica fume, and smaller aggregates
could enhance the strength of pervious concrete, achieving maximum compressive and flexural strengths of 50 MPa and 6 MPa,
respectively. Aginam and Nwakaire (2016) explored the use of quarry dust as a partial substitute for coarse aggregate in concrete.
Various ratios of quarry dust were tested, revealing that a 10% replacement of gravel with quarry dust was feasible, with the
highest compressive strength of 32.3 N/mm² achieved using Ibeto brand Portland cement. Regular concrete has a density ranging
from 2200 kg/m³ to 2600 kg/m³, while lightweight concrete ranges from 300 kg/m³ to 2000 kg/m³. Research on clogging in
pervious concrete has been limited, although past studies on pervious asphalt identified drainage issues. Understanding clogging
in pervious concrete is crucial for future maintenance planning, as effective water conveyance is a fundamental property. Despite
its advantages, pervious concrete has lower compressive strength than traditional concrete, limiting its application in high-traffic
areas. Factors like paste strength and thickness significantly influence compressive strength, with recommendations for using
smaller aggregates and mineral admixtures to enhance performance. Schaerfer et al., (2006) also note that pervious concrete's
primary characteristic is its high permeability, with a void ratio of 14% to 31% and a permeability range of 0.0254 to 0.609 cm/s,
which tends to increase with higher void ratio.
III. Materials and Methods
The sand, coarse aggregate, and crushed palm kernel shell (PKS) underwent sieve analysis. The coarse aggregate has a nominal
size of 12.5 mm and is of normal weight. Properties such as bulk density, particle size distribution, porosity/water absorption, and
specific gravity of the coarse aggregate were tested in accordance with BS 812, Part 101 (1984 to 1990), Part 110 (1990), and Part
112 (1990). Specific gravity is crucial when dealing with light and heavyweight concrete. Palm kernel shell has a specific gravity
between 1.17 and 1.37, compared to the typical range of 2.5 to 3.0 for other aggregates.
Portable, clean water was used to mix the aggregate efficiently and thoroughly, ensuring no segregation. The water amount was
carefully controlled, as it directly affects concrete properties such as workability and compressive strength
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIII, Issue XII, December 2024
www.ijltemas.in Page 181
Figure 1: Freshly prepared Granite and PKS concrete cube
The compressive strength was tested using a universal testing machine (UTM). Cubes with standard dimensions of 0.15m x
0.15m x 0.15m were demoulded, cured in a curing tank, and allowed to harden for 7, 14, and 28 days before being crushed. The
results from the cube crushing tests were recorded. Subsequently, a stretch of pervious walkway was constructed using one of the
mixes, capable of accommodating daily foot traffic.
Figure 2: PKS concrete mix
Figure 3: PKS pervious concrete walkway
IV. Results and Discussions
The specific gravity test was carried out on the fully dried aggregate before the addition of water. The results are shown in Table
3. According to British Standard BS 1330, Part 2 (1995), the test procedure and the specific gravity for fine aggregate should
range between 2.5 and 3.0.
Table 1: Specific Gravity of the Aggregates
GRANITE
PALM KERNEL SHELL
EMPTY PYCNOMETER(M1)
0.510KG
0.510KG
DRY SAMPLE(M2)
1.220KG
0.830KG
SAMPPLE + WATER (M3)
1.990KG
1.610KG
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIII, Issue XII, December 2024
www.ijltemas.in Page 182
PYNOMETER +WATER(M4)
1.531KG
1.523KG
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
2.87
1.36
The results indicate that the specific gravity of granite is 2.87, which falls within the range specified by BS 1130: Part 2: 1995 and
is normal for crushed aggregates. PKS, however, has a specific gravity of 1.36, which is lower than the specified range for
aggregates according to BS 1130: Part 2: 1995, but aligns with the range for lightweight coarse aggregate, which varies between
1.17 and 1.37.
The aggregate size distribution analysis is conducted to determine the size of aggregates in a sample, in accordance with BS 812:
Part 103 (1989). This is typically performed through a gradation process, which involves standard sieves arranged in a specific
order to ensure a well-graded aggregate. The impact of particle size distribution cannot be overlooked, as well-graded materials
significantly influence the workability of the concrete.
Figure 4: Palm kernel shell distribution
Figure 5: Granite distribution
The results from Figures 4 and 5 indicate similarities in the distribution patterns.
The water absorption rate was assessed on 28-day cubes after they were fully cured and dried. The cubes were entirely immersed
in a curing tank for a designated period, and measurements were taken before and after curing. Table 6 presents the water
absorption results for each cube.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIII, Issue XII, December 2024
www.ijltemas.in Page 183
Figure 6: Absorption percentage of control mixes
Figure 6 shows that the water absorption rate for 100% granite is the lowest, while 100% palm kernel shell has a higher
absorption rate, as palm kernel shell absorbs more water than granite.
Figure 7: Water absorption rate of pervious concrete with partial replacement of granite with palm kernel shell
Figure 7 indicates that increasing the replacement of granite with PKS leads to greater water absorption, which confirms the
perviousness of concrete made with PKS. After establishing the mix ratio of 1:5 and identifying possible replacement ratios for
palm kernel shell, an experiment was conducted to evaluate the strength of the cubes. The control mixes used were 100% granite
(100G), 90% granite and 10% sand (90G 10S), 100% PKS (100PKS), and 90% PKS and 10% sand (90PKS 10S)
Figure 8: Compressive strength of the control
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Dry weight
Wet weight
Absorbed water
Percentage of absorption
100PKS 100G
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
90G 10PKS
80G 20PKS
70G 30PKS
60G 40PKS
50G 50PKS
Percentage of absorption Absorbed water Wet weight Dry weight
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
7 days
14 days
28 days
Compressive strength (MPa)
Chart Title
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIII, Issue XII, December 2024
www.ijltemas.in Page 184
In analyzing the compressive strength from Figure 8, the control mixes' strength increased with the number of curing days. Since
pervious concrete is known to gradually reach its maximum strength, it is likely that it can achieve greater strength with extended
curing periods. The graph illustrates the compressive strength of pervious concrete produced from the control mixes, including
partial replacements with palm kernel shell and sand (fine aggregate). These mixes were cured for 7, 14, and 28 days. The peak
strength for the control mix was observed with 90% granite and 10% PKS. While granite alone has good strength, it was
enhanced by the addition of palm kernel shell. Although the initial strength of the palm kernel shell mixture was low, adding sand
to the palm kernel shell increased its strength and load-bearing capacity.
Figure 9: Compressive strength of pervious concrete partial replacement of granite with palm kernel shell
Figure 9 shows that the strength of the pervious concrete increased for each column representing different curing days, with the
highest strength observed at 28 days. However, the rows of different mixes indicate that while strength initially increased to a
maximum at 70% granite and 30% PKS, further increases in the percentage of PKS led to a decrease in strength.
V. Conclusion
The experiment, analysis, and discussion on the impact of aggregate on pervious concrete have been presented in this paper. The
study concluded that palm kernel shell has potential as a partial replacement in pervious concrete without fine aggregate. The
compressive strength peaked with a partial replacement of 70% granite and 30% palm kernel shell, achieving values of 5.33 MPa
at 7 days, 6.19 MPa at 14 days, and 7.36 MPa at 28 days.
Reference
1. ACI committee 522. (2010). Report on Pervious Concrete [Review of Report on Pervious Concrete]. In American
Concrete Institute (Ed.), www.concrete.org (pp. 1–40). American Concrete Institute.
2. Adeala A.J and Soyemi O.B. [2021]: Engineering Properties of Crushed-Fine Glass as Partial Replacement for Fine
Aggregate in Concrete. International Journal of Women in Technical Education and Employment [IJOWITED]. 2(1).
86-94. ISSN: 2811-1567
3. Adewuyi, A. P., and Adegoke, T. (2008). Exploratory study of periwinkle shells as coarse aggregates in concrete works.
ARPN Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, 3(6), 1-5.
4. Aginam, C. H., Nwakaire, C., & Onah, B. C. (2016). Quarry dust as a partial replacement of coarse aggregates in
concrete production. Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering, 13(1), 65-73.
5. AlShareedah, O., & Nassiri, S. (2021). Spherical discrete element model for estimating the hydraulic conductivity and
pore clogging of pervious concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 305, 124749.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.124749
6. Amalu, R. G., Ashraf, A., Hashim, M., Rejith, K. U., Vijitha, V. R., and Kurup, N. (2016). Use of waste plastic as fine
aggregate substitute in concrete. International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, 7(4), 172-7.
7. Ayegbusi O.A and Soyemi O.B. (2023): Mechanical Properties of an Impervious Concrete Using Palm Kernel Shell
(PKS) as a Substitute for Coarse Aggregate Federal Polytechnic Ilaro 4th International Conference in collaboration
with Takoradi Technical University Ghana
8. Bright Singh, S., & Murugan, M. (2022). Effect of aggregate size on properties of polypropylene and glass fibre-
reinforced pervious concrete. International Journal of Pavement Engineering, 23(6), 2034-2048.
9. Chen, C. C., Jaffe, N., Koppitz, M., Weimer, W., and Polocoser, A. (2015). Concrete mixture with plastic as fine
aggregate. International Journal of Advances in Mechanical and Civil Engineering, 2(4), 49-53.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
90G 10PKS
80G 20PKS
70G 30PKS
60G 40PKS
50G 50PKS
Chart Title
Compressive Strength (MPa) 28 days Compressive Strength (MPa) 14 days
Compressive Strength (MPa) 7 days
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING,
MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS)
ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XIII, Issue XII, December 2024
www.ijltemas.in Page 185
10. Debnath, B., & Sarkar, P. P. (2020). Pervious concrete as an alternative pavement strategy: A state-of-the-art
review. International Journal of Pavement Engineering, 21(12), 1516-1531.
11. Elinwa, A. U., & Okhide, A. (2020). Artificial Neural Network Application to the Flexural Strength of Palm Kernel
Shell Concrete. GSJ, 8(12).
12. Ghernouti, Y., Rabehi, B., Safi, B., and Chaid, R. (2009). Use of recycled plastic bag waste in the concrete. Journal of
International Scientific Publications: Materials, Methods and Technologies, 8, 480-487.
13. Houghton, B. F., & Wilson, C. J. N. (1989). A vesicularity index for pyroclastic deposits. Bulletin of
Volcanology, 51(6), 451–462. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01078811
14. Kováč, M., & Sičáková, A. (2018). Pervious concrete as an environmental solution for pavements: focus on key
properties. Environments, 5(1), 11.
15. Kukarni, V. P., Gaikwad, S. K. B., & Kumar, B. (2013). Comparative study on coconut shell aggregate with
conventional concrete. International Journal of Engineering and Innovative Technology, 2(12), 67-70.
16. Ogunfayo I.K., Soyemi O.B and Sanni A.O [2015]: Flexural Properties of Finely Granulated Plastic Waste as a Partial
Replacement of Fine Aggregate in Concrete. TI International Journal of Engineering Sciences. 4(5) ISSN: 2306-6474.
65-68
17. Ravindrarajah R, and Yukari A. (2008). ‘’Environmentally Friendly Porous Concrete’’, Second International Journal on
Advance Concrete, Hyderabad, India.
18. Sandanayake, M., Bouras, Y., Haigh, R., & Vrcelj, Z. (2020). Current sustainable trends of using waste materials in
concrete—a decade review. Sustainability, 12(22), 9622.
19. Schaefer V. and Wang K. (2006). ‘’Mix design development for pervious concrete in cold weather climate, ‘’ final
report, national concrete pavement technology center, Iowa state university, Anes, IA.
20. Schaefer, V.R., Wang, K., Suleiman, M.T., and Kevern, J. (2006) Mix Design Development for Pervious Concrete in
Cold Weather Climates. A Report from the National Concrete Pavement Technology Center, Ames, IA: Iowa State
University
21. Soyemi O.B, Adegbesan O.O. and Adeala A.J. [2023]: Production of Paving Stone with Waste Plastic as Binder. The V.
International Halich Congress on Multidisplinary Scientific Research. IKSAD Institute. Istanbul, Turkiye. Jan 15-16,
2023
22. Sreenath S. and Harish-Shankar S., (2017). ‘’effect of partial replacement of fine aggregate in concrete with low
density’. International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology.
23. Taheri, B. M., Ramezanianpour, A. M., Sabokpa, S., & Gapele, M. (2021). Experimental evaluation of freeze-thaw
durability of pervious concrete. Journal of building engineering, 33, 101617.
24. Tarangini, D., Abhilash, A., Sravana, P., & Rao, P. S. (2022). Effect of fly ash on properties of Gap graded
concrete. Materials Today: Proceedings, 51, 475-479.
25. Yang, J., & Jiang, G. (2003). Experimental study on properties of pervious concrete pavement materials. Cement and
concrete research, 33(3), 381-386.
26. Yeih, W., Fu, T. C., Chang, J. J., & Huang, R. (2015). Properties of pervious concrete made with air-cooling electric arc
furnace slag as aggregates. Construction and Building Materials, 93, 737-745.
27. Yu, F., Sun, D., Wang, J., & Hu, M. (2019). Influence of aggregate size on compressive strength of pervious
concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 209, 463–475. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.03.140
28. Zhang, Z., Zhang, Y., Yan, C., & Liu, Y. (2017). Influence of crushing index on properties of recycled aggregates
pervious concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 135, 112-118.
